Addendum
Discussion Paper by Farmers’ Organizations*: How to access and manage water in agriculture: the experiences of farmers and their organisations
U.N. Commission for Sustainable Development, 12th Session
New York, 19-30 April 2004
Contents
I. New developments and challenges Page
III. Management of water supplies
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I. New developments and challenges
1. Over 1 billion people, one sixth of the world’s population, still lack access to a safe domestic water supply; while 2.4 billion people, half of the world’s population, are without adequate sanitation. The demand for freshwater is increasing from both industry, and the expanding urban areas; both are placing additional pressures on freshwater resources. As agriculture too continues to grow, so does its freshwater needs. The FAO predicts that it will be necessary to double world food production over the next 25 years using essentially the same land area. Moreover, by 2025, more than three billion people will face water scarcity.
2. This alarming global picture shows the pressure that exists on global water resources. Currently, about 70% of the world’s freshwater supplies are used for agriculture, 85% of these are used by developed countries, and the remaining 15% are used by the developing world, where most of the population is rural and lives from family agriculture. It is clear that in the future sustainable agriculture will be called upon to increase the efficiency of water use – that is, “more crop per drop”. Consequently, sustainable agriculture must be made even more intensive and productive than it is now, despite the substantial productivity gains achieved over the last 30 years (which mostly apply to developed countries).
3. Increasing the land area under irrigation is one key element in making the land more productive. However, water constraints may well make expanding irrigation to feed an additional 1.5 billion people by 2025 very problematic. Therefore, future productivity gains must be achieved through sustainable intensification and more efficient use of such limited resources as water. Research is needed in order to adopt farming methods that minimise the need of water. At the same time, farmers need to be more skilled and aware of this alarming picture. Taking into account the specific needs of the farmers and rural communities is important for the drawing up of national and international policies in order to solve the problem of access to water and the management of this scarce resource in the most efficient way. The role of farmers’ organisations and their political stands are indeed crucial.
4. Issues concerning common access to, and management of, freshwater supplies have a central role in sustainable development and eradicating poverty. They have now been given priority in international policy as a result of the World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg in September 2002. The focus on water was intensified in particular in 2003, since the year was declared International Year of Freshwater. From the pressures of development and population growth, many countries have begun to investigate which approaches can sustain their water use into the future. However, all the countries do not face the same problems with respect to water resources. Some countries have excess water, while others face water scarcity problems.
5. Appropriate water and food strategies must therefore be country, region, and location specific.
6. More particularly, they have to take into account the specific needs of the different user communities and find appropriate means to balance them off; without putting any of the communities, or their needs, in the fringe of decision-making processes. Therefore the knowledge on how to access and manage water resources, in the most appropriate way, is not only a technical matter but rather, it has to be perceived in a holistic context, as socio-economic and political dimensions are crucial elements of this paradigm.
7. Dealing with the issue of managing water in the most efficient way should go beyond the technical and economic aspects; the social component needs to be explored more in-depth if we want a voluntary change in behaviour to occur.
8. This innovative way at looking at water issues puts the users in a position where they need to question themselves and face a problem that seems to evade them. Therefore, we not only need to put in place new technically and economically sustainable water management systems, but also ones that are socially and environmentally acceptable. In fact, the traditional water supply-driven management does not integrate this complexity as the social dimension includes issues involving communication, raising awareness and participation of different users.
9. In this new scheme, farmers and their organisations, as well as other user communities, are considered as key players to come up with appropriate management frameworks by being involved. They become more responsible and proactive in managing this scarce resource.
10. Experience shows how important it is for farmers to be proactive and involved in trying to change ways of managing water resources. Farmers from throughout the world have interesting stories to tell through practical actions and voluntary initiatives. Clearly, these demonstrate their willingness to safeguard natural resources, while continuing to achieve food security, with the means that they have available.
II. Access to water
11. Access to water is critical to agriculture, and yet rural communities in developing countries are the first victims of the lack of access to water resources. Rural areas are often remote and rural dwellers are often in a weak position to promote their interests. Instead of waiting for public authorities to solve their problems, farmers need to organise and try to be proactive in bringing their own solutions. Through group structures, farmers can ensure that the needs and interests of the poor receive greater priority.
A. Specific experiences
Improving access to water in rural areas: the initiative of Liton Free Farmers Cooperative from the Philippines
12. Located in Southern Philippines, the Liton Free Farmers Cooperative was created by residents of the rice-farming village who saw the need to work together in order to address their economic problems. The cooperative’s officials took the initiative to approach the FFF/FFFCI National Office for possible assistance in setting up a potable water system for their settlement.
13. Indeed, the community was facing several problems such as: polluted rainwater and/or unhealthy shallow wells for their drinking, washing, bathing and other requirements; polluted nearby water tables due to the intensive use of chemical fertilizer; lack of a drainage system creating stagnant water ponds.
14. The proposal was to set up a 10,000 gallon capacity water pump and tank, and a web of water distribution pipes that would provide clear and potable water to the 223 farmer-households.
15. The FFF/FFFCI National Office helped in locating a donor who provided a grant for the construction of the water tank and part of the distribution system. It also assisted the cooperative in securing a water permit from the National Water Resources Board (NWRB).
16. The Liton cooperative in turn agreed to shoulder the costs to complete the distribution system, while their members agreed to shoulder expenses for in-house pipes, fittings, and related items. Each household was also required to install a water meter, which would be used for billing them for the maintenance of the water system.
Impacts
17. The village-based water system was the first of its type and scale in the province, given that most water systems are usually located in town and city centres.
18. The most tangible and immediate impact of the project was the improvement in the sanitation and hygiene in the community and the corresponding improvement in the health and general welfare of the residents.
19. Beneficiaries noted that the time they previously spent to haul potable water from remote areas was now being devoted to more housework and other constructive activities. The project also reinforced the unity and cooperation of the members of the cooperative, which was necessary not only for the continued success of their business projects, but also for the maintenance of their water system.
Lessons learned
20. The existence of a strong organization of project beneficiaries is critical in ensuring the efficient installation and sustained maintenance of the system. The cooperative’s officials actually did almost all of the work, from contacting and negotiating with the water installation company, to supervising the construction of the system, and securing the necessary water permits and laboratory clearances. The farmer-members in turn contributed in helping construct the water system and setting up the pipe distribution network in the village.
21. This practical case shows that the existence of a farmers’ organization can reap benefits beyond economic or business projects, or traditional social advocacy activities. Cooperation between members of the cooperative served as the groundwork on which other services could be provided to the members. For instance, the cooperative arranged for a consolidated electrical connection with the local electric company, so that the settlement is billed as one account, and the cooperative can take care of collecting fees from individual households.
22. This experience highlights the need for a clear water rights policy so as to avoid confusion and unnecessary conflicts in the future. Although the cooperative settlement is 4 kilometres away from the town centre, it had to secure a waiver from the town’s water utility agency, which apparently had acquired prior rights and franchises over water tables, to avoid conflicts over water rights.
23. There is a clear economic and social rationale for investing in basic utilities, such as potable water systems, in rural areas. If life in the rural areas becomes unbearable, it becomes difficult to stop the rural residents from migrating into town centres and cities for their survival. This will often result in congestion, urban squatting, health and sanitation problems, and stress on water and other utilities. Similar problems will crop up if governments neglect rural roads, irrigation facilities, and other basic infrastructure.
Enhancing women access to water through capacity building and raising awareness
24. Equitable access to water is a gender issue. Depending on cultural and traditional standards in the countries under consideration, the opportunities for rural women to access and control resources essential to their agricultural productivity are variable.
25. Rural women play an important role in the economic survival of their families. In addition to the unpaid work that they do, women produce most of the food in many developing regions. They are central to providing, managing and safeguarding water.
26. And yet, women are often the ones who suffer most from the degradation of water and other natural resources. In rural areas, women spend long hours fetching water for their families and are usually the custodians of family health.
B. Specific experiences
Empowering Indian women to improve their access to water through training and raising awareness
Context
27. In rural India, women spend several hours walking to conventional sources of water, like rivers, wells, ponds, lakes, etc, in order to provide for their household needs. The introduction of tube wells and hand pumps has greatly improved the quality of life and reduced the distances that women needed to travel everyday. However most of these wells were placed in places convenient for local authority bodies for maintenance, e.g. at the side of the road, not taking into consideration the users’ needs. To overcome this problem, training was provided to women in the repair and maintenance of hand pumps, so that the wells could be located in the village.
Impacts
28. In instances where women received training, the ownership of these facilities greatly improved.
The training provided the women with a sense of empowerment and control, allowing them to be self-reliant in their ability to access water.
Lessons learned
29. The participation, and inclusion, of women in local governance bodies has greatly aided in making water supply a matter of priority. Upon the introduction of mandatory reservation of membership and presidency in local bodies for women, water became a priority in governance at the local level. Thus women’s capacity building and involvement was essential to the improvement of water conservation and access.
Watershed based soil and water conservation in Kakkad region of India.
Context
30. The Kakkad region was marked by high male migration in search of employment, leaving behind women who were ignorant of water and soil conservation techniques. A project under the Science and Technology division of the local state put forward an initiative that centred on education and capacity building for women in water and soil conservation.
Impacts
31. The project aimed at organising women into groups, raising their awareness of the current problems and issues involved, while illustrating strategies that could be used to alleviate the effects of water and soil degradation. The women, and the community itself, were involved in the problem identification, prioritization, and watershed delineation. Soil and water conservation received attention from a well-informed community, who implemented strategies founded on a knowledge base that they acquired through this project.
Lessons learned
32. Both of these Indian examples serve to illustrate that women’s involvement in water maintenance and conservation strategies served to not only strengthen their capacities as active participants, but also it allowed for water to be put forward as a priority in these communities.
Since women usually take on the role of water custodian, giving them access to technological knowledge, scientific management capacity and political empowerment allows them to more accurately administer water as a precious renewable resource.
The use of appropriate technologies for accessing water resources
33. The use of appropriate technologies has to be distinguished from traditional systems or practices. Technologies have to be adapted to local conditions, and they need to be accessible to the producers to meet their specific needs. In other words, high-energy using technologies are not necessarily adaptable to the needs of certain poor rural communities.
34. Whatever technologies are used by water supply systems, they need to be maintained. Local populations are more motivated to maintain water supply systems if the technologies are adapted to their given environments and to their level of skills.
C. Specific experiences
The use of traditional knowledge in irrigation: the Foggara system in Algeria
Context
35. A traditional form of irrigation called foggara, whose origins can be traced back 3000 to 4000 years, is an alternative to modern irrigation. Foggara is used in Southern Algeria on conventional farms and serves as a source of water for several oases in the Ouled Saïd, a human-made wetland that covers an area of 25,400 hectares in southwest Algeria.
36. Foggara was first practiced in Iran and brought to North Africa during the second expansion of Islam. The foggara system is a complex network of vertical shafts dug into a sloping plateau overlooking an oasis. These vertical shafts or wells are connected by an underlying channel, which has a gradient flatter than that of the ground. Water is drawn from an aquifer within the plateau by the force of gravity and directed through the channel to the surface for agricultural or domestic use.
Impacts
37. There are two significant benefits of the foggara system of water delivery. These benefits include:
· Water loss through seepage and evaporation is reduced because a majority of the channel is underground
· The elimination of pumps, as the system is fed entirely by gravity
The Zai system: a traditional system of water conservation
Context
38. Practiced mainly in Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger, where it is known as tassa, Zai is a traditional technique for conserving water and rehabilitating degraded land. The Zai system is a series of man made pits, or holes, dug on abandoned, or unused, land. The purpose of creating the holes is to capture runoff precipitation, because the flat land is typically less permeable to water. The zai pits are filled with organic matter so that moisture can be trapped and stored more easily. The pits are then planted with annual crops such as millet or sorghum.
Impacts
35. The Zai pits extend the favourable conditions for soil infiltration after runoff they and are beneficial during storms, when there is too much water. The compost and organic matter in the pits absorb excess water and act a form of storage for the planted crops.
36. Zai pits are dug approximately 80 cm apart to a depth of 5 to 15 cm and with a diameter of 15 to 50 cm. No special equipment, or knowledge, is needed to adopt the technology and the cost of implementation is mainly calculated according to the farmer’s opportunity cost of time
37. The maintenance of the pits does require the farmer to invest additional time in watching over, deepening and refilling the pits. However, the economic returns to the farmer’s investment is 100%, because the land brought under production is abandoned or unused land.
38. The success of Zai planting pits has been documented all over the Sahel region.
39. The Zai system is often practiced in combination with contour stone bunds and the planting of trees.
40. A disadvantage of the system is that they may become water logged during extremely wet years.
Conserving a traditional water system through modern enhancement: rehabilitating wells in Finland
Context
39. Finnish geology is particularly endowed with an environment that fosters small ground pockets that are fairly near the soil surface. This favourable circumstance allows the landowner to dig a well and have access to water directly. As a result, there is a proliferation of wells in Finland but many of the wells in the countryside are old and their structure has deteriorated through time.
40. The most common problem that affects the structure of the wells is when surface water leaks into the well and deteriorates the quality of the water in the well itself. Since these wells represent the most important water supply for farmers, the government has put forward a financing initiative for structural upgrading of the wells in the countryside.
41. The Finnish government, through the Ministry of Agriculture, has provided a guide on how to restore the wells, and in addition has supplied an aid package of 30% of the reparation cost. A specified guideline has been provided by the government requiring strict adherence in order to be eligible for the financial aid itself.
Impacts
42. Farmers were able to utilize the benefits of modern technology to enhance the structural integrity of their traditional wells. Thereby, farmers can restore, or rebuild, wells in order for the farm to meet their drinking and household needs, while adhering to strict quality standards.
43 The farmers’ ability to utilize modern technological upgrading of a traditional water management tool greatly enables them to manage this resource in a more efficient way. Since in the rural areas, farmers are themselves responsible for their own water supply, well reconstruction allows them to maintain control over the quality of the water that they extract. This in turn bestows them with the ability to pursue water consuming agricultural activities like dairy farming, without compromising either the quality, or control of their water supply.
Lessons learned
43. This practical case serves as a good illustration of the benefits of upgrading traditional technologies in order for farmers to keep control over their water supply, while conserving the quality of the resource. This sometimes requires governmental support, which is often lacking in developing countries.
III. Management of Water Supplies
Participatory Methods
44. In order to be equitable and sustainable, water management and development has to be conducted on a participatory basis, with decision-making occurring at the lowest appropriate level. Indeed, all water users and stakeholders especially farmers, men and women, young and old, both in developed and developing countries, whose actions affect the quantity or quality of water, should have a say in water management. The following examples illustrate the benefits of involving the farmers in the decision making-processes.
A. Specific Experiences
Farmers in Sweden participating in an awareness campaign to enhance the quality of water
Context
45. The Swedish parliament has adopted 15 environmental quality goals, many of which concern agricultural sustainability criteria. A 2020 target has been set up by the Swedish government to achieve these goals (except for the climate objective which has to be implemented by 2050). An innovative and complementary approach to the scientific and legislative implementation of these new 15 Swedish environmental goals has been initiated by the farmers themselves. In fact, the farmers have for a long time advocated that participatory methods, cooperation, involvement and voluntary approaches would achieve better results in the long run. The government has recognised the importance of public participation and bottom-up involvement, which calls for a larger choice of implementation methods to achieve the environmental goals.
Swedish farmers’ participation in the project: “Focus on nutrients”
46. An interesting illustration of farmers’ participation in Sweden is the project called “Focus on nutrients” which focuses on the protection of water from pesticides and the reduction of nutrients losses in the water.
Focus on Nutrients is a joint-project between: the Swedish Board of Agriculture, the County Administration Boards, the Federation of Swedish Farmers and a number of companies in the farming business.
47. The project takes the form of a campaign officially launched in 2001, which aims at providing training and advancement of the overall objective of the project: i.e encompassing the entire flow of nutrients on the farm. The campaign will continue for at least five years. The ultimate objective of this campaign is to increase nutrient management efficiency on the farms through raising awareness and knowledge sharing. Individual farm visits are organised by farm advisers, placing the farmer at the core of this campaign; in addition there are on going study-circles.
Impacts
48. It is too early to evaluate the project and its effects on water quality, however expectations of the outcomes from the campaign are high, both amongst the farming sector and public authorities.
49. Farmers show high interest, with around 4000 participants covering 44 percent of the arable land in the southern part of Sweden.
50. An important factor of success has proven to be the great number of organisations involved. About 40 different farm advisory bureaus with 200 advisors are involved on a part time or full time basis, to provide environmental advice on farms.
51. The most important method used is called “farm-gate nutrient balances”. This method of nutrient balances has been successfully used in a previous Swedish project, where farmers have calculated yearly nutrient balances for seven years. The results indicate that there is a great potential for improvement, where the most visible progress is achieved when a farmer calculates the nutrient balance for the first time.
"Farmers water quality management groups": a voluntary farmers initiative
52. In some places in Sweden, farmers have started to get organised and to collaborate in the improvement of water quality at the local level. These groups usually consist of 10-30 farmers that gather around their local stream, carrying discharge from their farmland. The motive for this voluntarily work is to use a bottom-up approach in the improvement of water quality and to be ahead of authorities in this regard. An important part of the work is to increase knowledge and awareness on cultivation methods that are important in preserving the quality of water. Evening classes are commonly given, as well as study trips organised to other farmers or to field experiments where measures to reduce nutrient leaching are tested.
Lessons learned
53. Even though creating incentives for all users to participate in water management processes is complex, the returns in terms of improved water management, reduced conflict, and long-run sustainability of systems, make this a vital investment.
Participatory activism through volunteering: Indian village of Monody
54. The village of Monody was experiencing irrigation problems due to the fact that one of the major canals, averaging 28 kilometres in length and which was used to deliver water, became now silted and nearly non-operational. The silting that had accumulated in the canal prevented it from carrying water to the fields to its full capacity. Previous requests to the local government went unheeded, as the government itself did not have the budget to undertake such a project.
55. However a project Planning Commission from the government of India had initiated a proposal to undertake a development initiative by mobilizing collection of all locally available technical, financial and physical resources. Subsequently a village development committee was constituted to administer the project. One of the most important features of this collaborative effort was the ability of the village to supply free labour to this project. The village worked out that the project’s duration was going to take 3000 man days of labour, therefore 3000 households in the village were approached to provide one member of their household for one day of labour, or wages to employ one person. The majority of the households supplied the project with free manpower, and in turn the village provided food for the labourers.
56. The work was carried out on a daily basis, and at the end it had been inspected by the Engineering Department. Currently the canal has been restored to its full working condition and is now irrigating the village’s fields. The Agricultural University has also provided some instructional inputs and advised the village on issues like soil restoration, plantation, and pest management. As a result a significant improvement in the agricultural production of local villagers has been observed, and in turn an increase in their economic standing.
Lessons learned
57. In this example the government played an advisory role, however the village itself greatly benefited from their collaborative effort to spearhead this project. Their communal efforts and organisation stands to illustrate the possibility of great success with participation and mutual help within local communities. It also shows that this community took the initiative to sort out their problem using available resources.
Participatory Frameworks
58. Community-based participation through the creation of consultation frameworks has to become a prerequisite for successful water management.
B. Specific Experiences
Water User’s Associations in Tunisia
59. The Tunisian government has decided to transfer the management of irrigation and drinking water schemes to Water Users Associations. The involvement of water users in the management of the resource has been very important in changing the social concept of water, and redefining its value in economic terms. Increased awareness of the scarcity of water and the need for its rational use has been a success of this policy.
Context
60. Water Users’ Associations (WUAs) have a long history in Tunisia, and they were first created during the early 1900’s. These organizations were charged with solving water management problems and ensuring efficient water distribution. In 1987, the mandate of WUAs was redefined to include the implementation, operation, and maintenance of irrigation-drainage or potable water supply infrastructures. WUAs are financially autonomous and managed by a governing council, that includes a president, a treasurer and elected members. In Tunisia, WUAs are responsible for more than half of the public irrigation schemes in the country.
Impacts
61. In 2001, water access and distribution in rural areas was increased by 90% through the efforts of WUAs and the Société Nationale d’Exploitation et de Distribution des Eaux (SONEDE), a government agency. There are 2470 WUAs operating in Tunisia: 63% are responsible for providing drinking water, 34% are responsible for irrigation and 3% are responsible for both. By improving the access of water resources to the poor, poverty alleviation has been a benefit of the policy.
62. The government’s policy of transferring the management of water services to WUAs has been successful, because of the introduction the Fonds National de Solidarité (FNS). This government program was created in 1992 and its aim was to provide infrastructure to rural areas. The skills of WUAs in the financial and technical management of water services were reinforced by this program. The FNS is funded through voluntary contributions by public and private enterprises, international development agencies, private individuals, and the National Government.
The cost of water and efficiency of its use
63. Who should pay for the use of such a scarce resource as water is indeed a complex issue, which needs to take into account several factors.
64. Farmers, through the development of rational systems in managing the water resource, can achieve substantial quantity and therefore economical savings.
C. Specific Experiences
Finnish cooperatives and the price of water
65. The example of Finland can be used to illustrate the ability of farmers to organize in order to maintain low prices on water. In rural Finland there are about one thousand water cooperatives and about 400 small limited water companies. A majority of these water associations service very small towns and villages that on average have less than 200 inhabitants. Among these associations are cooperatives, which are servicing less than 100 inhabitants. These associations have grown in significance as the most important source of water supply in rural Finland.
66. The cost and investment of running a small-scale water cooperative is very small. All cooperatives are licensed by the government, and are allotted a limit as to the amount of water they are allowed to extract per day.
67. The Finnish government also provides the cooperatives with financial programs for further investment. In addition, members may opt out to participate with the labour to decrease costs for any of the projects that require reconstruction. The cooperative also has its own well and distribution network, and it has complete control over prices. As a result, the cooperatives can offer water at reasonable prices to their members because the price of water is not influenced by the fluctuations of the market.
68. Water cooperatives also have the benefits of a networking with other participating cooperatives. The cross-organisational aspect allows for a far greater level of manoeuvrability and adaptability in various situations. If, for example, the water quality in one region is not good enough, as a result of extenuating natural circumstances, the cooperative may buy water from a neighbour cooperative or community-owned water network. This form of inter-cooperative assistance allows for these associations and their members to benefit from mutual aid that is low in price and dependable.
69. The cooperatives are vital component of the Finnish rural sector and a good example of how mutual organisation, cooperation and activism work in unison to achieve inexpensive access to water.
Innovative Partnerships
70. Farmers often have the willingness, but not necessarily the required means (financial, human, institutional), to cope alone with improving water management systems. They often need to be supported, while at the same time encouraged to take on initiatives. In this regard, the key to better water outreach is the development of innovative partnerships. Therefore, there is a need for appropriate frameworks to build and implement partnership initiatives to manage the water.
71. Organisations and water users often do not have the finances, knowledge, right institutions, or incentives to use new technologies. The private sector has the means but often does not have the experience to ensure efficient and equitable water management policies, that national authorities might otherwise implement. Partnerships are therefore needed.
72. New forms of partnerships also need to be promoted. Instead of separate government agencies for irrigation, water supply, sanitation and environment, effective water management organizations should include new combinations of public sector, private sector, and farmers organisations to seek fitting solutions. For instance, management of river basins and irrigation areas should be in the hands of local and regional governments as well as farmers’ organisations.
73. There is also an urgent need for cooperation between donor agencies and the industry, in order to achieve the transfer and adaptation of the best technologies for the benefit of developing countries. South-south technical cooperation is also an important element that should not be bypassed.
D. Specific Experiences
Partnership between the farmers and owners of water quotas: the example of Southern Algeria
74. In the desert, land alone is not considered real capital, as its value is intrinsically tied to water rights. The ownership of water can be acquired through the investment of labour or money in the construction of a foggara, a traditional form of irrigation in the oases of the North African Saharas. Partnership agreements between the owners of un-irrigated land and the owners of water quotas determine the share of water received by each recipient within the partnership; they are based on the size or level of investment contribution. For regions of Algeria where this type of socio-economic arrangement still persists in conventional agriculture, the operators of foggaras have set up professional associations.
75. In one region of Southern Algeria, a partnership called “association-sharing” exists between owners of un-irrigated land and owners of water quotas for the production of palm dates. In this type of agreement, the owner of the un-irrigated land transfers half of the property rights on his land to the owner of the water quota. After approximately seven years when the palm trees first bear fruit, the “association-sharing” ends. At this time, the landowner assumes permanent ownership of the water on his land. Both individuals benefit from this type of partnership as each claims half the ownership of a palm grove that would not exist without foggara irrigation.
Partnerships between farmers and researchers “Swedish success story on catchments pesticide management”
76. In the framework of a pilot study, which benefited a small catchment area in the South of Sweden, farmers achieved a
90% reduction in findings of pesticide residues, in a one-year period. The work was carried out in close cooperation with a scientist and a farm advisor. All farmers were interviewed on what procedures they were using when spraying. Yearly meetings were held on how to improve the management of pesticides.
Impacts
77. Information sessions led to an improvement in handling procedures such as filling and cleaning.
78. Weeds on the farm were regulated mechanically instead of chemically in many cases, and where spraying was continued a safety distance to the stream and wells was observed.
79. After ten years, concentrations of pesticides decreased by 90% in the small stream e.g. surface water. The yields were not affected by the improved handling procedures, the measures were cost effective and therefore the farm did not suffer any economic loss.
Partnerships between the farmers, the private sector and water rights authorities: example of farmers of “Zirking” (Upper Austria) and the water supply company “Fernwasservorsorgung Mühlviertel”
Context
80. The protection of groundwater in Austria –99% of Austrian drinking water is groundwater or source water- is achieved through both regulatory and voluntary measures. Voluntary measures include either environmental programs that are part of the rural development program or contracts between farmers and water supply companies.
81. Frequently, the relationship between water supply companies and those farmers who must tolerate regulatory production restrictions to protect water sources is burdened by tension and sometimes even outright confrontation.
82. Since some of the wells in the Zirking area do not supply the best quality water, it was named the first redevelopment area in 1996, according to the Austrian water law, by the water rights authorities. Under the leadership of the agricultural chambers, the affected farmers organized themselves and established a democratically-elected working committee, which developed, internally, into a decision-making forum and, externally, as the legitimate opposition to the public authorities and contact body. Furthermore, this committee had an important impact on the amendments to the Austrian water law concerning the existing groundwater redevelopment terms.
83. According to the new legal situation, the water rights authorities conceived the idea to enact drastic production restrictions for farmers through a conservation area regulation. The draft would have entailed an intensification of agricultural requirements, which met with strong opposition from farmers.
84. The counter-proposal from the agricultural sector reshaped the model to an effective, non-bureaucratic water pollution control concept tailored to practical requirements, while simultaneously abandoning the prospective regulations. The water rights authorities gave the green light to the pilot project, provided that the water pollution control resolution proves to be just as effective as the planned regulation in guaranteeing protection targets.
85. After numerous negotiations, an agreement was finally reached with the authorities and the water supply company, in regards to the financial compensation and implementation of the package of measures. The water rights authorities agreed to that proposal. However the degree to which individual farmers commit to any of these measures remains their own decision. Nevertheless, an attractive system of premiums has stimulated a high level of participation.
Impact
86. In the first year, 86 per cent of the eligible farmers had already signed onto the contracts - a high level of participation.
87. The area that would have been affected in the original plan was ultimately reduced in size by almost half.
88. The excessive terms about the use of herbicides, which had solely been a precautionary measure and would have accounted to a near application ban, could be eliminated through negotiation.
89. The difficulty to apply regulatory conditions gave way to a more intelligent model with a catalogue of measures built upon the Austrian environmental programme.
90. After this experience, the farmers of Zirking are convinced that voluntary participation in the water pollution control project, and the simultaneous responsibility that grows from it, is the best way to achieve successful protection of groundwater.
Lessons learned
91. The example above shows that local partnerships with contractual regulations between farmers and water supply companies, can prove successful and are well accepted by the water rights authorities as a non-bureaucratic way to achieve a common goal: the protection of drinking water resources.
Efficient and rational use of water resources
92. Increasing the efficiency of water use in farm operations makes economic sense, and ensures that scarce water resources are protected for future generations.
93. Sustainable agriculture should be based on a wise use of all available resources. Technical improvements might not be sufficient when cultivated crops are not suited to the climate and to the availability of the water resource. For this reason, it seems important to combine both technical and managerial means and to seek an optimal combination of all water uses.
94. Increasing the combined value of all water uses calls for more attention to water quality, rather than just quantity issues. Waste disposal, therefore, becomes critical to sharing water among different uses. Upgrading efficiency in all water uses is of utmost importance. In short, the managerial approach should be multi-sectorial.
E. Specific Experiences
Water Audits: an innovative approach in the UK applied to agriculture
Context
95. An agricultural water audit is a detailed analysis and account of water use in an agricultural operation. A complete water audit includes both an outdoor and indoor component, and must describe where, how, and why water is being used in a farming or livestock operation. It should also include how water use can be reduced without compromising crop quality and yield, or animal welfare.
96. An agricultural water audit should be simple, yet effective. The process should highlight the practical steps that the farmer or grower can take to create an immediate impact on a farm’s water management. The loss of soil, nutrients, and other farms inputs, as diffused pollution is reduced when water use is analysed and accounted for.
97. The National Farmers Union (NFU) in the United Kingdom launched its Water Wise Campaign in November 2000 to promote efficient water use on the farm, and demonstrate and discuss best irrigation practices. In the summer of 2001, the NFU conducted a survey among all its members to document water use on farm operations and found that farmers were taking the initiative to increase the efficiency of water management on their farms.
98. The Water Wise campaign is an effort taken by the NFU to encourage the agricultural industry to improve water use efficiency ahead of impending European and National legislation. A guide called “Water Wise on the Farm, a simple guide to implementing a water management plan”, developed by the Environment Agency and LEAF (Linking Environment and Farming) organization, and supported by the NFU, was launched in November, 2002.
99. Five simple steps for carrying out a water audit and developing a water management plan are outlined in this document:
· Identify how much water the farmer is using and its cost
· Water use inventory
· Calculate how much water the farmer is using
· Identify and compare water efficiency activities to reduce water use
· Create, implement and review the farmer Water Wise Action plan
100. After choosing an appropriate water efficiency activity, a Water wise action plan must be created and implemented. The action plan should include the following: (1) how the farmer plans to save water, (2) targets for water savings, (3) targets for financial savings, and (4) who is responsible for each action. When implementing the plan, the following issues must be addressed: (1) staff, family, and conductor awareness of the need to save water, (2) timing of improvements, (3) routine maintenance and checks, and (4) monitoring and reviewing progress. It is very important that a review be conducted after a plan has been implemented. The ideal time for a review is approximately a year after the plan has been in implementation.
Impacts
101. The results of the Water Wise Survey demonstrate that farmers are very conscious of water management and are pursuing measures to reduce waste and improve water efficiency. A summary of the Water Wise Survey Results:
· 2/3 of respondents said they are more efficient with their water use today (2001) than they were five years ago
· More than ½ of the respondents made plans to increase further their water efficiency over the next five years
· Nearly 40% either collect rainwater or recycle water for use on the farm
· Nearly 70% have invested in reservoirs or storage tanks in order to store water for use later in the year
· 50% of respondents use scheduling techniques in irrigation to make sure they are using water at exactly the right time of day to avoid waste
· 80% of respondents regularly test soil moisture levels in order to ensure delivery of appropriate levels during irrigation
· More than two thirds of those who irrigate store water for use later in the year
Drip irrigation in Kenya: a cost effective method for small farmers
Context
102. Agriculture in the country is mainly rain fed. Irrigated agriculture is under-exploited, and only 13% of the country’s irrigation potential is being utilized. Despite the creation of the National Irrigation Board (NIB) of irrigation management, little progress has been made in increasing the hectares of land under irrigation.
103. Some of the problems that have plagued the NIB include: lack of participation of farmers, competition from cheap imports, high running costs of schemes, and inadequate funding from the state.
104. For many smallholder farmers, the high cost of irrigation equipment makes them reluctant to adopt irrigation technology.
105. The introduction of a simple, cost effective drip irrigation system has made it possible for many farmers to irrigate their fields or kitchen gardens. This system is easily assembled and can be adapted for individual farm conditions.
106. A drip irrigation system consists of a network of porous or perforated piping that is installed on the surface or below ground. This plastic piping is usually laid alongside the rows of planted of crops, and water is directly applied to the root zones of the crops in a slow and controlled manner to reduce evaporation loss.
Impacts
107. The use of this technique reduces water use by 40 to 60%, while the increase in yield can be as high as 84%.
108. Advances in drip irrigation technology have made it more cost effective and accessible to smallholder farmers. In 1996, the Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) introduced bucket drip irrigation kits developed by Chapin Watermatics. A typical bucket drip irrigation kit costs 19 US dollars and includes a 20 litre bucket or a 200 litre drum, drip tape, filters, rubber washers, male and female adapters, two supple tubes, bard fittings and a screen filter.
109. The buckets are mounted on a stand, one meter off the ground with drip lines connected at the bottom. Water is poured into the buckets and released under pressures of 0.5-2 m water head. This system is considered a low-head drip system, while a standard drip system operates under pressures of 10-15 m water head. For dry areas where water has to be carried for long distances, this system is ideal as it requires less water and it allows every drop to be used efficiently.
Lessons learned
110. Drip irrigation is a good example of a low cost device that helps the farmers increase yield while efficiently using water resources. In particular approximately 70-80% of drip irrigation users are women, who use this technology to maintain their kitchen gardens. As a result the introduction of drip irrigation has enabled many families to have vegetables in their diets all year round, and in some cases it allowed them to sell the excess to supplement their incomes.
111. A wide variety of specific experiences are reported in this paper. Yet all of them show that farmers and rural communities are motivated and willing to become responsible for efficiently managing water resources, and developing new and innovative agricultural production methods, that conserve their water supplies. A policy approach based on stakeholder participation and giving responsibility to users in the management of water resources is proving to be an effective way of using water well.
112. In the cases where farmers engage in protecting water resources on a voluntary and participatory basis, this has proved to be beneficial to their living and production conditions. It has also been seen that collaboration and dialogue with public authorities often proved to be valuable to them.
113. Multistakeholder partnerships also seem to be an effective tool for good management of water supplies. Even though it is important to set up clear rules and regulations to support farmers’ efforts in managing the water resource more efficiently, legislation alone is not always the only way to solve problems. Informal agreements between farmers’ organisations and other stakeholders, such as private companies and research institutions, represent valuable alternative methods that need to be given further consideration.
114. Raising awareness of a farming community on a number of issues of interest to the improvement of production, while using water resources more efficiently, has to be given a higher priority especially in those regions where this is not developed. Therefore, farmers and their organisational capacities need to be strengthened to enable them to be proactive in safeguarding this natural resource. Farmers know their natural environment well, and helping them with structural problems, such as finding the necessary resources (financial, human, institutional), will help them use their unique knowledge in the best way. Collaboration is thus of utmost importance.
115. Collaboration with the scientific community needs to be encouraged as they are an essential partner in developing technologies and farming techniques for water conservation that build on farmer local knowledge.
116. Farmers have interesting experiences to share, and they have the capacity to change to make a living out of their activity.
117. Access to water is critical to agriculture, and agriculture is critical for food security and rural development. “Win-win” partnerships are badly needed to face the challenging issue of protecting our precious natural resources, while at the same time doubling world food production to meet the needs of a growing population.